introducing_python.Rmd

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---

# Introduction to Python

## Variables

Variables are named values.

```{python}
a = 4
```

Read this as:

> "a" gets the value 4.

```{python}
b = 6
```

> "b" gets the value 6.

```{python}
a + b
```

You can also *update* variables, as in:

```{python}
a = a + 2
a
```

So far we've seen numbers as values, but we can also have bits of text called *strings*.  Strings are bits of text between quotes.

```{python}
a = "Python"
c = "MATLAB"
z = " > "
```

You have seen adding numbers.  We can also add strings.  This as the effect of sticking them together — *concatenating* the strings:

```{python}
a + z + c
```

Strings can have apostrophes (`'`) or inverted commas (`"`) at either end, Python accepts either.

```{python}
first = 'a string'
second = "b string"
first + second
```

You can even use triple apostrophes or inverted commas at either end; this is useful for when you want to put a new line inside your string:

```{python}
many_line_string = """
This string
has
several
lines
"""
print(many_line_string)
```

Length of a string:

```{python}
len(first)
```

Strings and numbers are different:

```{python tags=c("raises-exception")}
number = "9"
number + 6
```

We can convert between numbers and strings:

```{python}
int(number) + 6
str(9)
```

However ...

```{python tags=c("raises-exception")}
number = "nine"
int(number)
```

## Lists

```{python}
an_empty_list = []
list_with_two_items = [1, 2]
items_can_be_diverse = [1, "Obama", 4.55]
```

```{python}
example_list = []
example_list.append("experiment1")
example_list
```

```{python}
example_list[0]
```

The length of a list (or any object that can have a length):

```{python}
len(example_list)
```

```{python}
example_list.append("failed_experiment")
print(example_list)
example_list.append("failed_experiment")
print(example_list)
```

```{python}
example_list.pop()
```

```{python}
example_list
```

```{python}
del example_list[0]
example_list
```

`range` in returns a “range object”.  It’s like a list, but isn’t quite a
list.

```{python}
range(10)
```

You can make it into a list by using the `list` constructor.  A constructor
is like a function, but it creates a new object, in this case a new object of
type `list`.

```{python}
list(range(10))
```

You can also set the start element for `range`:

```{python}
list(range(2, 7))
```

Use `in` to ask if a element is a collection of things, such as a range, or
a list:

```{python}
5 in range(2, 7)
5 in [2, 5, 7]
```

```{python}
9 in range(2, 7)
```

## Sets

Sets are unordered, and unique.

“Unordered” means the order is arbitrary, and Python reserves the right to
return the elements in any order it likes:

```{python}
our_work = set(["metacognition", "mindwandering", "perception"])
print(our_work)
```

If you want to get a version of the set that is ordered, use `sorted`, which
returns a sorted list:

```{python}
sorted(our_work)
```

You can't index a set, because the indices 0, or 1, or 2 don’t correspond to
any particular element (because the set is unordered):

```{python tags=c("raises-exception")}
our_work[0]
```

Add to a set with the `add` method:

```{python}
our_work.add("consciousness")
print(our_work)
```

```{python}
our_work.add("consciousness")
print(our_work)
our_work.add("consciousness")
print(our_work)
```

You can subtract sets:

```{python}
competing_labs_work = set(["motor control", "decision making", "memory", "consciousness"])
what_we_should_focus_on = our_work - competing_labs_work
print(what_we_should_focus_on)  
```

```{python}
what_we_should_avoid = our_work.intersection(competing_labs_work)
print(what_we_should_avoid)
```

Sets have lengths as well:

```{python}
len(what_we_should_focus_on)
```

## Working with strings

We have already seen strings. Here is another example.

```{python}
example = "mary had a little lamb"
print(example)
```

String slicing:

```{python}
example[0]
```

```{python}
example[0:4]
```

You can split strings with any character.  This breaks up the string,
returning a list of strings broken at the separator character:

```{python}
example.split(" ")
```

```{python}
example.split(" ")[4]
```

You can split with any character:

```{python}
another_example = 'one:two:three'
another_example.split(":")
```

You can also `strip` a string.  That returns a new string with spaces, tabs
and end of line characters removed from the beginning and end:

```{python}
my_string = ' a string\n'
my_string
my_string.strip()
```

Adding strings:

```{python}
example + " or two"
```

Putting strings into other strings:

```{python}
subject_id = "sub1"
print(f"Subject {subject_id} is excellent")
```

```{python}
age = 29
print(f"Subject {subject_id} is {age} years old")
```

You can do more complex formatting of numbers and strings using formatting
options after a `:` in the placeholder for the string.  See:
[https://docs.python.org/3.5/library/string.html#format-examples](https://docs.python.org/3.5/library/string.html#format-examples).

```{python}
print("Subject {:02d} is here".format(4))
```

## For loop

```{python}
for i in range(10):
    print(i)
```

Indentation is crucial!

```{python tags=c("raises-exception")}
for i in range(10):
print(i)
```

Watch out for mistakes:

```{python}
for i in range(10):
    j = i + 1
print(j)
```

## Ifs and breaks

```{python}
a = 2
b = 5
c = a + b
if c < 6:
    print("yes")
```

```{python}
if c < 6:
    print("yes")
else:
    print("no")
```

```{python}
if c < 6:
    print("yes")
elif c > 6:
    print("no")
else:
    print("kind of")
```

```{python}
if True:
    print("true, true!")
```

```{python}
if False:
    print("never!")
```

```{python}
for i in range(10):
    if i == 6:
        break
    print(i)
```

```{python}
for i in range(10):
    if i == 6:
        continue
    print(i)
```

## Logic

You can use logical operators like `and`, `or` and `not`:

```{python}
strange_election = True
uncomfortable_choices = True
satisfying_experience = False
strange_election and uncomfortable_choices
strange_election and satisfying_experience
strange_election and not satisfying_experience
```

We often use these in `if` statements:

```{python}
if strange_election and not satisfying_experience:
    print('Watching a lot of news')
```

## Files

Write lines to a text file:

```{python}
fobj = open("important_notes.txt", "wt")
type(fobj)
```

```{python}
fobj.write("captains log 672828: I had a banana for breakfast.\n")
fobj.write("captains log 672829: I should watch less TV.\n")
fobj.close()
```

Read lines from a text file:

```{python}
fobj = open("important_notes.txt", "rt")
print(fobj.readline())
print(fobj.readline())
```

```{python}
print(fobj.readline())
```

Close a file when you have finished with it:

```{python}
fobj.close()
```

One way to read all the lines from a text file:

```{python}
fobj = open("important_notes.txt", "rt")
lines = fobj.readlines()
fobj.close()
len(lines)
print(lines[0])
print(lines[1])
```

We may want to delete the file when we've finished with it.  There are utilities for things like that.  Here I'm using the `unlink` function from the `os` module (library) to delete the file:

```{python}
# Load the os module (library) so we can use it.
import os
```

```{python}
# Delete the file.
os.unlink('important_notes.txt')
```