HACKING

Technical notes about PCRE2
---------------------------

These are very rough technical notes that record potentially useful information
about PCRE2 internals. PCRE2 is a library based on the original PCRE library,
but with a revised (and incompatible) API. To avoid confusion, the original
library is referred to as PCRE1 below. For information about testing PCRE2, see
the pcre2test documentation and the comment at the head of the RunTest file.

PCRE1 releases were up to 8.3x when PCRE2 was developed, and later bug fix
releases carried on the 8.xx series, up to the final 8.45 release. PCRE2
releases started at 10.00 to avoid confusion with PCRE1.


Historical note 1
-----------------

Many years ago I implemented some regular expression functions to an algorithm
suggested by Martin Richards. The rather simple patterns were not Unix-like in
form, and were quite restricted in what they could do by comparison with Perl.
The interesting part about the algorithm was that the amount of space required
to hold the compiled form of an expression was known in advance. The code to
apply an expression did not operate by backtracking, as the original Henry
Spencer code and the current PCRE2 pcre2_match() function and Perl code do, but
instead checked all possibilities simultaneously by keeping a list of current
states and checking all of them as it advanced through the subject string. In
the terminology of Jeffrey Friedl's book, it was a "DFA algorithm", though it
was not a traditional Finite State Machine (FSM). When the pattern was all used
up, all remaining states were possible matches, and the one matching the
longest subset of the subject string was chosen. This did not necessarily
maximize the individual wild portions of the pattern, as is expected in Unix
and Perl-style regular expressions.


Historical note 2
-----------------

The code originally written by Henry Spencer (which was subsequently heavily
modified for Perl) compiles the expression twice: once in a dummy mode in order
to find out how much store will be needed, and then for real. (The Perl version
may or may not still do this; I'm talking about the original library.) The
execution function operates by backtracking and maximizing (or, optionally,
minimizing, in Perl) the amount of the subject that matches individual wild
portions of the pattern. This is an "NFA algorithm" in Friedl's terminology.


Support for 16-bit and 32-bit data strings
-------------------------------------------

The PCRE2 library can be compiled in any combination of 8-bit, 16-bit or 32-bit
modes, creating up to three different libraries. In the description that
follows, the word "short" is used for a 16-bit data quantity, and the phrase
"code unit" is used for a quantity that is a byte in 8-bit mode, a short in
16-bit mode and a 32-bit word in 32-bit mode. The names of PCRE2 functions are
given in generic form, without the _8, _16, or _32 suffix.


Computing the memory requirement: how it was
--------------------------------------------

Up to and including release 6.7, PCRE1 worked by running a very degenerate
first pass to calculate a maximum memory requirement, and then a second pass to
do the real compile - which might use a bit less than the predicted amount of
memory. The idea was that this would turn out faster than the Henry Spencer
code because the first pass is degenerate and the second pass can just store
stuff straight into memory, which it knows is big enough.


Computing the memory requirement: how it is
-------------------------------------------

By the time I was working on a potential 6.8 release, the degenerate first pass
had become very complicated and hard to maintain. Indeed one of the early
things I did for 6.8 was to fix Yet Another Bug in the memory computation. Then
I had a flash of inspiration as to how I could run the real compile function in
a "fake" mode that enables it to compute how much memory it would need, while
in most cases only ever using a small amount of working memory, and without too
many tests of the mode that might slow it down. So I refactored the compiling
functions to work this way. This got rid of about 600 lines of source and made
further maintenance and development easier. As this was such a major change, I
never released 6.8, instead upping the number to 7.0 (other quite major changes
were also present in the 7.0 release).

A side effect of this work was that the previous limit of 200 on the nesting
depth of parentheses was removed. However, there was a downside: compiling ran
more slowly than before (30% or more, depending on the pattern) because it now
did a full analysis of the pattern twice. My hope was that this would not be a
big issue, and in the event, nobody has commented on it.

At release 8.34, a limit on the nesting depth of parentheses was re-introduced
(default 250, settable at build time) so as to put a limit on the amount of
system stack used by the compile function, which uses recursive function calls
for nested parenthesized groups. This is a safety feature for environments with
small stacks where the patterns are provided by users.


Yet another pattern scan
------------------------

History repeated itself for PCRE2 release 10.20. A number of bugs relating to
named subpatterns had been discovered by fuzzers. Most of these were related to
the handling of forward references when it was not known if the named group was
unique. (References to non-unique names use a different opcode and more
memory.) The use of duplicate group numbers (the (?| facility) also caused
issues.

To get around these problems I adopted a new approach by adding a third pass
over the pattern (really a "pre-pass"), which does nothing other than identify
all the named subpatterns and their corresponding group numbers. This means
that the actual compile (both the memory-computing dummy run and the real
compile) has full knowledge of group names and numbers throughout. Several
dozen lines of messy code were eliminated, though the new pre-pass was not
short. In particular, parsing and skipping over [] classes is complicated.

While working on 10.22 I realized that I could simplify yet again by moving
more of the parsing into the pre-pass, thus avoiding doing it in two places, so
after 10.22 was released, the code underwent yet another big refactoring. This
is how it is from 10.23 onwards:

The function called parse_regex() scans the pattern characters, parsing them
into literal data and meta characters. It converts escapes such as \x{123}
into literals, handles \Q...\E, and skips over comments and non-significant
white space. The result of the scanning is put into a vector of 32-bit unsigned
integers. Values less than 0x80000000 are literal data. Higher values represent
meta-characters. The top 16-bits of such values identify the meta-character,
and these are given names such as META_CAPTURE. The lower 16-bits are available
for data, for example, the capturing group number. The only situation in which
literal data values greater than 0x7fffffff can appear is when the 32-bit
library is running in non-UTF mode. This is handled by having a special
meta-character that is followed by the 32-bit data value.

The size of the parsed pattern vector, when auto-callouts are not enabled, is
bounded by the length of the pattern (with one exception). The code is written
so that each item in the pattern uses no more vector elements than the number
of code units in the item itself. The exception is the aforementioned large
32-bit number handling. For this reason, 32-bit non-UTF patterns are scanned in
advance to check for such values. When auto-callouts are enabled, the generous
assumption is made that there will be a callout for each pattern code unit
(which of course is only actually true if all code units are literals) plus one
at the end. A default parsed pattern vector is defined on the system stack, to
minimize memory handling, but if this is not big enough, heap memory is used.

If there are any lookbehinds in the pattern, the parsed pattern is scanned in
order to work out their lengths. Then the actual compiling function is run
twice, the first time to determine the amount of memory needed for the final
compiled pattern. The compiling function processes the parsed pattern vector,
not the pattern itself, although some of the parsed items refer to strings in
the pattern - for example, group names.

Some post-processing of the compiled pattern takes place. If there are any
recursion or subroutine calls, there is a scan to convert them into offsets.
Then there are other scans to apply certain optimizations, some of which can be
disabled by setting appropriate options.

Most errors can be diagnosed during the parsing scan. For those that cannot,
the parsed code contains offsets into the pattern so that the actual compiling
code can report where the errors are.


The elements of the parsed pattern vector
-----------------------------------------

The word "offset" below means a code unit offset into the pattern. When
PCRE2_SIZE (which is usually size_t) is no bigger than uint32_t, an offset is
stored in a single parsed pattern element. Otherwise (typically on 64-bit
systems) it occupies two elements. The following meta items occupy just one
element, with no data:

META_ACCEPT           (*ACCEPT)
META_ASTERISK         *
META_ASTERISK_PLUS    *+
META_ASTERISK_QUERY   *?
META_ATOMIC           (?> start of atomic group
META_CIRCUMFLEX       ^ metacharacter
META_CLASS            [ start of non-empty class
META_CLASS_EMPTY      [] empty class - only with PCRE2_ALLOW_EMPTY_CLASS
META_CLASS_EMPTY_NOT  [^] negative empty class - ditto
META_CLASS_END        ] end of non-empty class
META_CLASS_NOT        [^ start non-empty negative class
META_COMMIT           (*COMMIT) - no argument (see below for with argument)
META_COND_ASSERT      (?(?assertion)
META_DOLLAR           $ metacharacter
META_DOT              . metacharacter
META_END              End of pattern (this value is 0x80000000)
META_FAIL             (*FAIL)
META_KET              ) closing parenthesis
META_LOOKAHEAD        (?= start of lookahead
META_LOOKAHEAD_NA     (*napla: start of non-atomic lookahead
META_LOOKAHEADNOT     (?! start of negative lookahead
META_NOCAPTURE        (?: no capture parens
META_PLUS             +
META_PLUS_PLUS        ++
META_PLUS_QUERY       +?
META_PRUNE            (*PRUNE) - no argument (see below for with argument)
META_QUERY            ?
META_QUERY_PLUS       ?+
META_QUERY_QUERY      ??
META_RANGE_ESCAPED    hyphen in class range with at least one escape
META_RANGE_LITERAL    hyphen in class range defined literally
META_SKIP             (*SKIP) - no argument (see below for with argument)
META_THEN             (*THEN) - no argument (see below for with argument)
META_ECLASS_AND       && (or &) in an extended character class
META_ECLASS_OR        || (or |, +) in an extended character class
META_ECLASS_SUB       -- (or -) in an extended character class
META_ECLASS_XOR       ~~ (or ^) in an extended character class
META_ECLASS_NOT       ! in an extended character class

The two RANGE values occur only in character classes. They are positioned
between two literals that define the start and end of the range. In an EBCDIC
environment it is necessary to know whether either of the range values was
specified as an escape. In an ASCII/Unicode environment the distinction is not
relevant.

The following have data in the lower 16 bits, and may be followed by other data
elements:

META_ALT              | alternation
META_BACKREF          back reference
META_CAPTURE          start of capturing group
META_ESCAPE           non-literal escape sequence
META_RECURSE          recursion call

If the data for META_ALT is non-zero, it is inside a lookbehind, and the data
is the maximum length of its branch (see META_LOOKBEHIND below for more
detail).

META_BACKREF, META_CAPTURE, and META_RECURSE have the capture group number as
their data in the lower 16 bits of the element. META_RECURSE is followed by an
offset, for use in error messages.

META_BACKREF is followed by an offset if the back reference group number is 10
or more. The offsets of the first occurrences of references to groups whose
numbers are less than 10 are put in cb->small_ref_offset[] (only the first
occurrence is useful). On 64-bit systems this avoids using more than two parsed
pattern elements for items such as \3. The offset is used when an error occurs
because the reference is to a non-existent group.

META_ESCAPE is used for escapes such as \d that match a character. It has an
ESC_xxx value as its data. For ESC_P and ESC_p, the next element contains the
16-bit type and data property values, packed together. Escape sequences such as
\g and \k are turned into other items like META_RECURSE or META_BACKREF and
their ESC_xxx values never occur with META_ESCAPE.

The following have one data item that follows in the next vector element:

META_BIGVALUE         Next is a literal >= META_END
META_POSIX            POSIX class item (data identifies the class)
META_POSIX_NEG        negative POSIX class item (ditto)

The following are followed by a length element, then a number of character code
values (which should match with the length):

META_MARK             (*MARK:xxxx)
META_COMMIT_ARG       (*COMMIT:xxxx)
META_PRUNE_ARG        (*PRUNE:xxx)
META_SKIP_ARG         (*SKIP:xxxx)
META_THEN_ARG         (*THEN:xxxx)

The following are followed by a length element, then an offset in the pattern
that identifies the name:

META_COND_NAME        (?(<name>) or (?('name') or (?(name)
META_COND_RNAME       (?(R&name)
META_COND_RNUMBER     (?(Rdigits)
META_RECURSE_BYNAME   (?&name)
META_BACKREF_BYNAME   \k'name' or \k<name> or \k{name} or \g{name}
META_SCS_NAME         (*scs:(<name>)...)

META_COND_RNUMBER is used for names that start with R and continue with digits,
because this is an ambiguous case. It could be a back reference to a group with
that name, or it could be a recursion test on a numbered group.

These are followed by an offset, for use in error messages, then a number:

META_COND_NUMBER       (?([+-]digits)
META_SCS_NUMBER        (*scs:(digits)...)

The following is followed just by an offset, for use in error messages:

META_COND_DEFINE      (?(DEFINE)

The following are at first also followed just by an offset for use in error
messages. After the lengths of the branches of a lookbehind group have been
checked the error offset is no longer needed. The lower 16 bits of the main
word are now set to the maximum length of the first branch of the lookbehind
group, and the second word is set to the minimum matching length for a
variable-length lookbehind group, or to LOOKBEHIND_MAX for a group whose
branches are all of fixed length. These values are used when generating
OP_REVERSE or OP_VREVERSE for the first branch. The miminum value is also used
for any subsequent branches because there is only room for one value (the
branch maximum length) in a META_ALT item.

META_LOOKBEHIND       (?<=      start of lookbehind
META_LOOKBEHIND_NA    (*naplb:  start of non-atomic lookbehind
META_LOOKBEHINDNOT    (?<!      start of negative lookbehind

The following are followed by two elements, the minimum and maximum. The
maximum value is limited to 65535 (MAX_REPEAT_COUNT). A maximum value of
"unlimited" is represented by REPEAT_UNLIMITED, which is bigger than it:

META_MINMAX           {n,m}  repeat
META_MINMAX_PLUS      {n,m}+ repeat
META_MINMAX_QUERY     {n,m}? repeat

This one is followed by two elements, giving the new option settings for the
main and extra options, respectively.

META_OPTIONS          (?i) and friends

This one is followed by three elements. The first is 0 for '>' and 1 for '>=';
the next two are the major and minor numbers:

META_COND_VERSION     (?(VERSION<op>x.y)

Callouts are converted into one of two items:

META_CALLOUT_NUMBER   (?C with numerical argument
META_CALLOUT_STRING   (?C with string argument

In both cases, the next two elements contain the offset and length of the next
item in the pattern. Then there is either one callout number, or a length and
an offset for the string argument. The length includes both delimiters.


Traditional matching function
-----------------------------

The "traditional", and original, matching function is called pcre2_match(), and
it implements an NFA algorithm, similar to the original Henry Spencer algorithm
and the way that Perl works. This is not surprising, since it is intended to be
as compatible with Perl as possible. This is the function most users of PCRE2
will use most of the time. If PCRE2 is compiled with just-in-time (JIT)
support, and studying a compiled pattern with JIT is successful, the JIT code
is run instead of the normal pcre2_match() code, but the result is the same.

The interpreter used to implement backtracking by means of recursive function
calls, but this gave rise to regular complaints when patterns with large search
trees ran out of stack. There was for a while a fudge that used the heap
instead, but this was inefficient and slow. In 2017 I re-wrote pcre2_match() as
a single, non-recursive function that implements backtracking via a vector of
"frames" on the heap, each frame representing a backtracking point. As well as
standard information such as the position in the pattern and position in the
subject, each frame has a number of unassigned variables that can be used
locally to preserve values at a backtracking point. C macros are used
extensively to implement all of this.


Supplementary matching function
-------------------------------

There is a supplementary matching function called pcre2_dfa_match() that
implements a DFA matching algorithm that searches simultaneously for all
possible matches that start at one point in the subject string. (Going back to
my roots: see Historical Note 1 above.) This function intreprets the same
compiled pattern data as pcre2_match(); however, not all the facilities are
available, and those that are do not always work in quite the same way. In
particular, capturing parentheses and backreferences are not supported. See the
user documentation for details.

The algorithm that is used for pcre2_dfa_match() is not a traditional FSM,
because it may have a number of states active at one time. More work would be
needed at compile time to produce a traditional FSM where only one state is
ever active at once. I believe some other regex matchers work this way. JIT
support is not available for this kind of matching.


Changeable options
------------------

The /i, /m, or /s options (PCRE2_CASELESS, PCRE2_MULTILINE, PCRE2_DOTALL) and
some others may be changed in the middle of patterns by items such as (?i).
Their processing is handled entirely at compile time by generating different
opcodes for the different settings. Some options are copied into the opcode's
data, for opcodes such as OP_REFI which depends on the (?r)
(PCRE2_EXTRA_CASELESS_RESTRICT) option. The runtime functions do not need to
keep track of an option's state.

PCRE2_DUPNAMES, PCRE2_EXTENDED, PCRE2_EXTENDED_MORE, and PCRE2_NO_AUTO_CAPTURE
are tracked and processed during the parsing pre-pass. The others are handled
from META_OPTIONS items during the main compile phase.


Format of compiled patterns
---------------------------

The compiled form of a pattern is a vector of unsigned code units (bytes in
8-bit mode, shorts in 16-bit mode, 32-bit words in 32-bit mode), containing
items of variable length. The first code unit in an item contains an opcode,
and the length of the item is either implicit in the opcode or contained in the
data that follows it.

In many cases listed below, LINK_SIZE data values are specified for offsets
within the compiled pattern. LINK_SIZE always specifies a number of bytes. The
default value for LINK_SIZE is 2, except for the 32-bit library, where it can
only be 4. The 8-bit library can be compiled to use 3-byte or 4-byte values,
and the 16-bit library can be compiled to use 4-byte values, though this
impairs performance. Specifying a LINK_SIZE larger than 2 for these libraries
is necessary only when patterns whose compiled length is greater than 65535
code units are going to be processed. When a LINK_SIZE value uses more than one
code unit, the most significant unit is first.

In this description, we assume the "normal" compilation options. Data values
that are counts (e.g. quantifiers) are always two bytes long in 8-bit mode
(most significant byte first), and one code unit in 16-bit and 32-bit modes.


Opcodes with no following data
------------------------------

These items are all just one code unit long:

  OP_END                 end of pattern
  OP_ANY                 match any one character other than newline
  OP_ALLANY              match any one character, including newline
  OP_ANYBYTE             match any single code unit, even in UTF-8/16 mode
  OP_SOD                 match start of data: \A
  OP_SOM,                start of match (subject + offset): \G
  OP_SET_SOM,            set start of match (\K)
  OP_CIRC                ^ (start of data)
  OP_CIRCM               ^ multiline mode (start of data or after newline)
  OP_NOT_WORD_BOUNDARY   \W
  OP_WORD_BOUNDARY       \w
  OP_NOT_DIGIT           \D
  OP_DIGIT               \d
  OP_NOT_HSPACE          \H
  OP_HSPACE              \h
  OP_NOT_WHITESPACE      \S
  OP_WHITESPACE          \s
  OP_NOT_VSPACE          \V
  OP_VSPACE              \v
  OP_NOT_WORDCHAR        \W
  OP_WORDCHAR            \w
  OP_EODN                match end of data or newline at end: \Z
  OP_EOD                 match end of data: \z
  OP_DOLL                $ (end of data, or before final newline)
  OP_DOLLM               $ multiline mode (end of data or before newline)
  OP_EXTUNI              match an extended Unicode grapheme cluster
  OP_ANYNL               match any Unicode newline sequence

  OP_ASSERT_ACCEPT       )
  OP_ACCEPT              ) These are Perl 5.10's "backtracking control
  OP_COMMIT              ) verbs". If OP_ACCEPT is inside capturing
  OP_FAIL                ) parentheses, it may be preceded by one or more
  OP_PRUNE               ) OP_CLOSE, each followed by a number that
  OP_SKIP                ) indicates which parentheses must be closed.
  OP_THEN                )

OP_ASSERT_ACCEPT is used when (*ACCEPT) is encountered within an assertion.
This ends the assertion, not the entire pattern match. The assertion (?!) is
always optimized to OP_FAIL.

OP_ALLANY is used for '.' when PCRE2_DOTALL is set. It is also used for \C in
non-UTF modes and in UTF-32 mode (since one code unit still equals one
character). Another use is for [^] when empty classes are permitted
(PCRE2_ALLOW_EMPTY_CLASS is set).


Backtracking control verbs
--------------------------

Verbs with no arguments generate opcodes with no following data (as listed
in the section above).

(*MARK:NAME) generates OP_MARK followed by the mark name, preceded by a
length in one code unit, and followed by a binary zero. The name length is
limited by the size of the code unit.

(*ACCEPT:NAME) and (*FAIL:NAME) are compiled as (*MARK:NAME)(*ACCEPT) and
(*MARK:NAME)(*FAIL) respectively.

For (*COMMIT:NAME), (*PRUNE:NAME), (*SKIP:NAME), and (*THEN:NAME), the opcodes
OP_COMMIT_ARG, OP_PRUNE_ARG, OP_SKIP_ARG, and OP_THEN_ARG are used, with the
name following in the same format as for OP_MARK.


Matching literal characters
---------------------------

The OP_CHAR opcode is followed by a single character that is to be matched
casefully. For caseless matching of characters that have at most two
case-equivalent code points, OP_CHARI is used. In UTF-8 or UTF-16 modes, the
character may be more than one code unit long. In UTF-32 mode, characters are
always exactly one code unit long.

If there is only one character in a character class, OP_CHAR or OP_CHARI is
used for a positive class, and OP_NOT or OP_NOTI for a negative one (that is,
for something like [^a]).

Caseless matching (positive or negative) of characters that have more than two
case-equivalent code points (which is possible only in UTF mode) is handled by
compiling a Unicode property item (see below), with the pseudo-property
PT_CLIST. The value of this property is an offset in a vector called
"ucd_caseless_sets" which identifies the start of a short list of case
equivalent characters, terminated by the value NOTACHAR (0xffffffff).


Repeating single characters
---------------------------

The common repeats (*, +, ?), when applied to a single character, use the
following opcodes, which come in caseful and caseless versions:

  Caseful         Caseless
  OP_STAR         OP_STARI
  OP_MINSTAR      OP_MINSTARI
  OP_POSSTAR      OP_POSSTARI
  OP_PLUS         OP_PLUSI
  OP_MINPLUS      OP_MINPLUSI
  OP_POSPLUS      OP_POSPLUSI
  OP_QUERY        OP_QUERYI
  OP_MINQUERY     OP_MINQUERYI
  OP_POSQUERY     OP_POSQUERYI

Each opcode is followed by the character that is to be repeated. In ASCII or
UTF-32 modes, these are two-code-unit items; in UTF-8 or UTF-16 modes, the
length is variable. Those with "MIN" in their names are the minimizing
versions. Those with "POS" in their names are possessive versions. Other kinds
of repeat make use of these opcodes:

  Caseful         Caseless
  OP_UPTO         OP_UPTOI
  OP_MINUPTO      OP_MINUPTOI
  OP_POSUPTO      OP_POSUPTOI
  OP_EXACT        OP_EXACTI

Each of these is followed by a count and then the repeated character. The count
is two bytes long in 8-bit mode (most significant byte first), or one code unit
in 16-bit and 32-bit modes.

OP_UPTO matches from 0 to the given number. A repeat with a non-zero minimum
and a fixed maximum is coded as an OP_EXACT followed by an OP_UPTO (or
OP_MINUPTO or OPT_POSUPTO).

Another set of matching repeating opcodes (called OP_NOTSTAR, OP_NOTSTARI,
etc.) are used for repeated, negated, single-character classes such as [^a]*.
The normal single-character opcodes (OP_STAR, etc.) are used for repeated
positive single-character classes.


Repeating character types
-------------------------

Repeats of things like \d are done exactly as for single characters, except
that instead of a character, the opcode for the type (e.g. OP_DIGIT) is stored
in the next code unit. The opcodes are:

  OP_TYPESTAR
  OP_TYPEMINSTAR
  OP_TYPEPOSSTAR
  OP_TYPEPLUS
  OP_TYPEMINPLUS
  OP_TYPEPOSPLUS
  OP_TYPEQUERY
  OP_TYPEMINQUERY
  OP_TYPEPOSQUERY
  OP_TYPEUPTO
  OP_TYPEMINUPTO
  OP_TYPEPOSUPTO
  OP_TYPEEXACT


Match by Unicode property
-------------------------

OP_PROP and OP_NOTPROP are used for positive and negative matches of a
character by testing its Unicode property (the \p and \P escape sequences).
Each is followed by two code units that encode the desired property as a type
and a value. The types are a set of #defines of the form PT_xxx, and the values
are enumerations of the form ucp_xx, defined in the pcre2_ucp.h source file.
The value is relevant only for PT_GC (General Category), PT_PC (Particular
Category), PT_SC (Script), PT_BIDICL (Bidi Class), PT_BOOL (Boolean property),
and the pseudo-property PT_CLIST, which is used to identify a list of
case-equivalent characters when there are three or more (see above).

Repeats of these items use the OP_TYPESTAR etc. set of opcodes, followed by
three code units: OP_PROP or OP_NOTPROP, and then the desired property type and
value.


Character classes
-----------------

If there is only one character in a class, OP_CHAR or OP_CHARI is used for a
positive class, and OP_NOT or OP_NOTI for a negative one (that is, for
something like [^a]), except when caselessly matching a character that has more
than two case-equivalent code points (which can happen only in UTF mode). In
this case a Unicode property item is used, as described above in "Matching
literal characters".

A set of repeating opcodes (called OP_NOTSTAR etc.) are used for repeated,
negated, single-character classes. The normal single-character opcodes
(OP_STAR, etc.) are used for repeated positive single-character classes.

When there is more than one character in a class, and all the code points are
less than 256, OP_CLASS is used for a positive class, and OP_NCLASS for a
negative one. In either case, the opcode is followed by a 32-byte (16-short,
8-word) bit map containing a 1 bit for every character that is acceptable. The
bits are counted from the least significant end of each unit. In caseless mode,
bits for both cases are set.

The reason for having both OP_CLASS and OP_NCLASS is so that, in UTF-8 and
16-bit and 32-bit modes, subject characters with values greater than 255 can be
handled correctly. For OP_CLASS they do not match, whereas for OP_NCLASS they
do.

For classes containing characters with values greater than 255 or that contain
\p or \P, OP_XCLASS is used. It optionally uses a bit map if any acceptable
code points are less than 256. After the bit map, the properties of the
character class are listed, if they are present. The items in the list
follows the declaration order of the pattern string. The property list
is followed by single characters and/or character ranges, if they are
present. The characters/ranges are sorted in ascending order, and at
least one non-matching character must be present between any two of
them. In caseless mode, all equivalent characters are explicitly listed.

OP_XCLASS is followed by a LINK_SIZE value containing the total length of the
opcode and its data. This is followed by a code unit containing flag bits:
XCL_NOT indicates that this is a negative class, and XCL_MAP indicates that a
bit map is present. There follows the bit map, if XCL_MAP is set, and then a
sequence of items coded as follows:

  XCL_END      marks the end of the list
  XCL_SINGLE   one character follows
  XCL_RANGE    two characters follow
  XCL_PROP     a Unicode property (type, value) follows
  XCL_NOTPROP  a Unicode property (type, value) follows

If a range starts with a code point less than 256 and ends with one greater
than 255, it is split into two ranges, with characters less than 256 being
indicated in the bit map, and the rest with XCL_RANGE.

When XCL_NOT is set, the bit map, if present, contains bits for characters that
are allowed (exactly as for OP_NCLASS), but the list of items that follow it
specifies characters and properties that are not allowed.

The meaning of the bitmap indicated by XCL_MAP is that, if one is present, then
it fully describes which code points < 256 match the class (without needing to
invert the check according to XCL_NOT); the other items in the OP_XCLASS need
not be consulted. However, if a bitmap is not present, then code points < 256
may still match, so the other items in the OP_XCLASS must be consulted.

For classes containing logical expressions, such as "[\p{Greek} && \p{Lu}]" for
"uppercase Greek letters", OP_ECLASS is used. The expression is encoded as a a
stack-based series of operands and operators, in Reverse Polish Notation. Like
an OP_XCLASS, the OP_ECLASS is first followed by a LINK_SIZE value containing
the total length of the opcode and its data. That is followed by a code unit
containing flags: currently just ECL_MAP indicating that a bit map is present.
There follows the bit map, if ECL_MAP is set. Finally, there is a sequence of
items that are either an operand or operator. Each item starts with a single
code unit containing its type:

  ECL_AND       AND; no additional data
  ECL_OR        OR; no additional data
  ECL_XOR       XOR; no additional data
  ECL_NOT       NOT; no additional data
  ECL_XCLASS    The additional data which follows ECL_XCLASS is the same as for
                an OP_XCLASS, except that this data is preceded by ECL_XCLASS
                rather than OP_XCLASS.
                Because the OP_ECLASS has its own bitmap (if required), an
                ECL_XCLASS should not contain a bitmap.

Additionally, there are two intermediate values used during compilation, but
these are folded away during generation of the opcode, and so never appear
inside an OP_ECLASS at match time. They are:

  ECL_ANY       match all characters; no additional data
  ECL_NONE      match no characters; no additional data

The meaning of the bitmap indicated by ECL_MAP is the same as XCL_MAP.
If the bitmap is present, all codepoints < 256 are checked against the bitmap.


Back references
---------------

OP_REF (caseful) or OP_REFI (caseless) is followed by a count containing the
reference number when the reference is to a unique capturing group (either by
number or by name). When named groups are used, there may be more than one
group with the same name. In this case, a reference to such a group by name
generates OP_DNREF or OP_DNREFI. These are followed by two counts: the index
(not the byte offset) in the group name table of the first entry for the
required name, followed by the number of groups with the same name. The
matching code can then search for the first one that is set.

OP_REFI and OP_DNREFI are further followed by an item containing any
case-insensitivity flags.


Repeating character classes and back references
-----------------------------------------------

Single-character classes are handled specially (see above). This section
applies to other classes and also to back references. In both cases, the repeat
information follows the base item. The matching code looks at the following
opcode to see if it is one of these:

  OP_CRSTAR
  OP_CRMINSTAR
  OP_CRPOSSTAR
  OP_CRPLUS
  OP_CRMINPLUS
  OP_CRPOSPLUS
  OP_CRQUERY
  OP_CRMINQUERY
  OP_CRPOSQUERY
  OP_CRRANGE
  OP_CRMINRANGE
  OP_CRPOSRANGE

All but the last three are single-code-unit items, with no data. The range
opcodes are followed by the minimum and maximum repeat counts.


Brackets and alternation
------------------------

A pair of non-capturing round brackets is wrapped round each expression at
compile time, so alternation always happens in the context of brackets.

[Note for North Americans: "bracket" to some English speakers, including
myself, can be round, square, curly, or pointy. Hence this usage rather than
"parentheses".]

Non-capturing brackets use the opcode OP_BRA, capturing brackets use OP_CBRA. A
bracket opcode is followed by a LINK_SIZE value which gives the offset to the
next alternative OP_ALT or, if there aren't any branches, to the terminating
opcode. Each OP_ALT is followed by a LINK_SIZE value giving the offset to the
next one, or to the final opcode. For capturing brackets, the bracket number is
a count that immediately follows the offset.

There are several opcodes that mark the end of a subpattern group. OP_KET is
used for subpatterns that do not repeat indefinitely, OP_KETRMIN and
OP_KETRMAX are used for indefinite repetitions, minimally or maximally
respectively, and OP_KETRPOS for possessive repetitions (see below for more
details). All four are followed by a LINK_SIZE value giving (as a positive
number) the offset back to the matching opening bracket opcode.

If a subpattern is quantified such that it is permitted to match zero times, it
is preceded by one of OP_BRAZERO, OP_BRAMINZERO, or OP_SKIPZERO. These are
single-unit opcodes that tell the matcher that skipping the following
subpattern entirely is a valid match. In the case of the first two, not
skipping the pattern is also valid (greedy and non-greedy). The third is used
when a pattern has the quantifier {0,0}. It cannot be entirely discarded,
because it may be called as a subroutine from elsewhere in the pattern.

A subpattern with an indefinite maximum repetition is replicated in the
compiled data its minimum number of times (or once with OP_BRAZERO if the
minimum is zero), with the final copy terminating with OP_KETRMIN or OP_KETRMAX
as appropriate.

A subpattern with a bounded maximum repetition is replicated in a nested
fashion up to the maximum number of times, with OP_BRAZERO or OP_BRAMINZERO
before each replication after the minimum, so that, for example, (abc){2,5} is
compiled as (abc)(abc)((abc)((abc)(abc)?)?)?, except that each bracketed group
has the same number.

When a repeated subpattern has an unbounded upper limit, it is checked to see
whether it could match an empty string. If this is the case, the opcode in the
final replication is changed to OP_SBRA or OP_SCBRA. This tells the matcher
that it needs to check for matching an empty string when it hits OP_KETRMIN or
OP_KETRMAX, and if so, to break the loop.


Possessive brackets
-------------------

When a repeated group (capturing or non-capturing) is marked as possessive by
the "+" notation, e.g. (abc)++, different opcodes are used. Their names all
have POS on the end, e.g. OP_BRAPOS instead of OP_BRA and OP_SCBRAPOS instead
of OP_SCBRA. The end of such a group is marked by OP_KETRPOS. If the minimum
repetition is zero, the group is preceded by OP_BRAPOSZERO.


Once-only (atomic) groups
-------------------------

These are just like other subpatterns, but they start with the opcode OP_ONCE.
The check for matching an empty string in an unbounded repeat is handled
entirely at runtime, so there is just this one opcode for atomic groups.


Assertions
----------

Forward assertions are also just like other subpatterns, but starting with one
of the opcodes OP_ASSERT, OP_ASSERT_NA (non-atomic assertion), or
OP_ASSERT_NOT.

Backward assertions use the opcodes OP_ASSERTBACK, OP_ASSERTBACK_NA, and
OP_ASSERTBACK_NOT. If all the branches of a backward assertion are of fixed
length (not necessarily the same), the first opcode inside each branch is
OP_REVERSE, followed by an IMM2_SIZE count of the number of characters to move
back the pointer in the subject string, thus allowing each branch to have a
different (but fixed) length.

Variable-length backward assertions whose maximum matching length is limited
are also supported. For such assertions, the first opcode inside each branch is
OP_VREVERSE, followed by the minimum and maximum lengths for that branch,
unless these happen to be equal, in which case OP_REVERSE is used. These
IMM2_SIZE values occupy two code units each in 8-bit mode, and 1 code unit in
16/32 bit modes.

In ASCII or UTF-32 mode, the character counts in OP_REVERSE and OP_VREVERSE are
also the number of code units, but in UTF-8/16 mode each character may occupy
more than one code unit.

The "scan substring" assertion compiles as OP_ASSERT_SCS. This opcode is
followed by a list of arguments. Each argument is either an OP_CREF or
OP_DNCREF byte code sequence. The details of these sequences are described
in the next section.

For example (*scs:(1,'NAME')...PATTERN...) is translated to:
[OP_ASSERT_SCS] [OP_CREF] [OP_CREF] ...PATTERN... [OP_KET]

If 'NAME' is a duplicated name, the second [OP_CREF] is [OP_DNCREF] instead.


Conditional subpatterns
-----------------------

These are like other subpatterns, but they start with the opcode OP_COND, or
OP_SCOND for one that might match an empty string in an unbounded repeat.

If the condition is a back reference, this is stored at the start of the
subpattern using the opcode OP_CREF followed by a count containing the
reference number, provided that the reference is to a unique capturing group.
If the reference was by name and there is more than one group with that name,
OP_DNCREF is used instead. It is followed by two counts: the index in the group
names table, and the number of groups with the same name. The allows the
matcher to check if any group with the given name is set.

If the condition is "in recursion" (coded as "(?(R)"), or "in recursion of
group x" (coded as "(?(Rx)"), the group number is stored at the start of the
subpattern using the opcode OP_RREF (with a value of RREF_ANY (0xffff) for "the
whole pattern") or OP_DNRREF (with data as for OP_DNCREF).

For a DEFINE condition, OP_FALSE is used (with no associated data). During
compilation, however, a DEFINE condition is coded as OP_DEFINE so that, when
the conditional group is complete, there can be a check to ensure that it
contains only one top-level branch. Once this has happened, the opcode is
changed to OP_FALSE, so the matcher never sees OP_DEFINE.

There is a special PCRE2-specific condition of the form (VERSION[>]=x.y), which
tests the PCRE2 version number. This compiles into one of the opcodes OP_TRUE
or OP_FALSE.

If a condition is not a back reference, recursion test, DEFINE, or VERSION, it
must start with a parenthesized atomic assertion, whose opcode normally
immediately follows OP_COND or OP_SCOND. However, if automatic callouts are
enabled, a callout is inserted immediately before the assertion. It is also
possible to insert a manual callout at this point. Only assertion conditions
may have callouts preceding the condition.

A condition that is the negative assertion (?!) is optimized to OP_FAIL in all
parts of the pattern, so this is another opcode that may appear as a condition.
It is treated the same as OP_FALSE.


Recursion
---------

Recursion either matches the current pattern, or some subexpression. The opcode
OP_RECURSE is followed by a LINK_SIZE value that is the offset to the starting
bracket from the start of the whole pattern. OP_RECURSE is also used for
"subroutine" calls, even though they are not strictly a recursion. Up till
release 10.30 recursions were treated as atomic groups, making them
incompatible with Perl (but PCRE had them well before Perl did). From 10.30,
backtracking into recursions is supported.

Repeated recursions used to be wrapped inside OP_ONCE brackets, which not only
forced no backtracking, but also allowed repetition to be handled as for other
bracketed groups. From 10.30 onwards, repeated recursions are duplicated for
their minimum repetitions, and then wrapped in non-capturing brackets for the
remainder. For example, (?1){3} is treated as (?1)(?1)(?1), and (?1){2,4} is
treated as (?1)(?1)(?:(?1)){0,2}.


Callouts
--------

A callout may have either a numerical argument or a string argument. These use
OP_CALLOUT or OP_CALLOUT_STR, respectively. In each case these are followed by
two LINK_SIZE values giving the offset in the pattern string to the start of
the following item, and another count giving the length of this item. These
values make it possible for pcre2test to output useful tracing information
using callouts.

In the case of a numeric callout, after these two values there is a single code
unit containing the callout number, in the range 0-255, with 255 being used for
callouts that are automatically inserted as a result of the PCRE2_AUTO_CALLOUT
option. Thus, this opcode item is of fixed length:

  [OP_CALLOUT] [PATTERN_OFFSET] [PATTERN_LENGTH] [NUMBER]

For callouts with string arguments, OP_CALLOUT_STR has three more data items:
a LINK_SIZE value giving the complete length of the entire opcode item, a
LINK_SIZE item containing the offset within the pattern string to the start of
the string argument, and the string itself, preceded by its starting delimiter
and followed by a binary zero. When a callout function is called, a pointer to
the actual string is passed, but the delimiter can be accessed as string[-1] if
the application needs it. In the 8-bit library, the callout in /X(?C'abc')Y/ is
compiled as the following bytes (decimal numbers represent binary values):

  [OP_CALLOUT_STR]  [0] [10]  [0] [1]  [0] [14]  [0] [5] ['] [a] [b] [c] [0]
                    --------  -------  --------  -------
                       |         |        |         |
                       ------- LINK_SIZE items ------

Opcode table checking
---------------------

The last opcode that is defined in pcre2_internal.h is OP_TABLE_LENGTH. This is
not a real opcode, but is used to check at compile time that tables indexed by
opcode are the correct length, in order to catch updating errors.


See also
--------

The file maint/README contains additional information.


Philip Hazel
August 2024